English Grammar and Sentence Structure

Common grammar error patterns

Error-spotting questions test a small set of recurring patterns. Read the whole sentence first, then check each underlined segment against these patterns: agreement, tense, word form, determiners, prepositions, and possessives. If every segment is sound, the answer is 'No error'.

• Subject-verb agreement. A parenthetical phrase set off by commas does not change the number of the subject. The verb agrees with the head noun, so a singular subject takes a singular verb even when a long insertion comes between them. An infinitive phrase used as the subject also takes a singular verb, as in 'To manage one's anger is a sign of maturity.' When two nouns are coordinated as adjectives before one noun, the phrase is still acceptable as long as both adjectives modify the same head noun.

• Tense consistency. Two predicates joined by 'and' should fit the same time frame. A change that has happened and still holds at the present is expressed with the present perfect, 'has become', not the simple past or present. A semicolon joins two independent clauses, and a conjunctive adverb such as 'however' may follow it.

• Word form and confusable pairs. 'Effect' is usually a noun, while the verb meaning to influence is 'affect'. 'Principal' means the head of an institution or the main thing, whereas 'principle' means a rule or belief. 'Among' and 'amongst' are both acceptable.

• Articles. The choice between 'a' and 'an' depends on the sound of the next word, not its spelling. 'Honest' begins with a silent h and takes 'an'. An ordinal number used with a noun takes the definite article, as in 'the ninth planet'.

• Quantifiers and determiners. 'Some' and 'one of the' require a plural countable noun, so the noun must be pluralised: 'some armfuls of' and 'one of the monuments'. 'These' and 'those' are plural demonstratives, while 'this' and 'that' are singular. They are chosen according to whether the referent is near or the set is the one already mentioned.

• Possessives and contractions. 'Its' is the possessive form of 'it' and never takes an apostrophe; 'it's' means 'it is' or 'it has'. The possessive of 'one' is 'one's', and it must be written with the apostrophe.

• Prepositions with time and process. Calendar years take 'in', so write 'in 1492'. A time of day after 'night' takes 'at', as in 'at night'. A process by which something changes is described with 'through', as in 'through a process called condensation'.

• Auxiliaries and verb forms. After 'do', 'does', 'did' or 'don't', the main verb takes the base form. 'Have to' also takes the base form 'have', so 'don't have to' is correct. A real condition uses the simple present in the if-clause, as in 'If you want to know the news, you can read a newspaper.'

• Introductory phrases. A participial phrase at the start of a sentence must refer to the subject of the main clause. When the same person performs both actions, the sentence is correct.

Verb and preposition patterns

Many verbs require a particular complement, and a wrong preposition or a missing preposition is a common error. Learn the verb together with the structure that follows it.

• Verb followed by infinitive. 'Refuse' takes the to-infinitive, so write 'refused to point it out', not 'refused it point out'. Verbs of intention and refusal follow this pattern in the same way.

• Verbs with direct and indirect objects. 'Tell' takes the person addressed as a direct object with no preposition, so 'told Divya' is correct. 'Say' is different and needs 'to' before the listener, as in 'said to Divya'.

• Phrasal verbs. 'Point out' means to draw attention to something, and the particle is 'out', not 'over'.

• Transitive verbs. 'Comprise' is transitive and means 'consist of', so it takes its object directly, as in 'comprising movable property'. Writing 'comprising of' is an error.

• Fixed collocations. 'Stay clear of' means to avoid involvement with something, so the preposition is 'of'. 'Felicitate' takes a direct object for the person honoured, and the occasion is introduced by 'at', as in 'at the ceremony'. 'Pause' takes 'for' before a period of time, as in 'paused for a few moments'.

• Help in. 'Help in' takes a noun or gerund after it, meaning to contribute to something. In biology, honey bees visit flowers for nectar and pollen. As they move between flowers they carry pollen from the anthers to the stigmas, which is pollination, and this process helps the flower reproduce.

• Negative and comparative idioms. 'Too' is used in affirmative clauses, while the negative equivalent is 'either', so a negative clause needs 'either'. 'Any further' is the idiom used after a negative construction to mean additional or abstract progress. 'Farther' refers only to physical distance.

• Pronoun agreement. 'Every person' is singular and takes a singular pronoun, so 'his or her' is used where a plural pronoun 'their' would not agree.

Linking adverbials and discourse markers

Linking adverbials and discourse markers are words and fixed phrases that show how one clause or sentence relates to the one before it. They signal the relation the writer intends, such as addition, contrast, concession, result, sequence, emphasis, summary, or change of topic. A word can be perfectly familiar and still be wrong in a given sentence, because the passage becomes illogical. The reliable method is to name the relation first and then test each option against it.

Most markers are adverbs or adverbial phrases placed at the start of a clause and set off by a comma. Unlike a preposition such as 'because of', which must be followed by a noun phrase, an adverbial marker can introduce a complete clause.

The main groups and their meanings:

• In any case — regardless of circumstances, anyway; the conclusion holds whatever else is true. e.g. The train may be delayed; in any case, we will leave at six.
• Meanwhile / in the meantime — 'meanwhile' means at the same time, while 'in the meantime' means during the interval before something happens. Neither gives a reason. e.g. The soup simmers; meanwhile, the bread is toasting.
• On the contrary — introduces a statement that reverses what is expected or assumed. e.g. He is not careless; on the contrary, he checks every detail twice.
• Incidentally — introduces a new, loosely related topic, like 'by the way'. e.g. Incidentally, the printer on the second floor is working again.
• Sort of / frankly / all the same — 'sort of' is a hedge that softens a description, 'frankly' signals a candid opinion, and 'all the same' signals concession, meaning nevertheless. e.g. The plan was costly; all the same, we approved it.
• To a large extent — qualifies the degree of a general claim. e.g. The project succeeded to a large extent.
• As regards / as far as / turning now — 'as regards' must be followed by a topic noun phrase, 'as far as' limits the scope of a claim, and 'turning now' marks a shift to a new subject. e.g. As far as I know, the bridge is open.
• What is more — adds a further point to one already made. e.g. The hotel is cheap; what is more, it is near the station.
• Briefly / broadly speaking / in conclusion — 'briefly' introduces a short summary, 'broadly speaking' marks a general approximation, and 'in conclusion' closes an argument.
• In general / in particular — 'in general' introduces the usual pattern, while 'in particular' singles out one case. The bare word 'particular' is not a marker here.
• Otherwise — introduces an alternative or consequence if something is not done. e.g. Hurry, otherwise the shop will close.
• Accordingly / likewise — 'accordingly' gives a result of something already stated, while 'likewise' adds a similar point.
• As per reports — attributes the information to a source. e.g. As per reports, the flight will be rescheduled tomorrow.
• In that case / in this case — 'in that case' means if that is so and introduces a consequence. 'In these case' is ungrammatical because the demonstrative must agree with the singular noun.
• Henceforth — from now on, referring to future time. e.g. Henceforth, all forms must be submitted online.
• Notably / particularly — 'notably' introduces a fact worth attention, while 'particularly' singles out one item from a group.
• As such / hence — 'as such' means in that capacity or for that reason, and 'hence' signals a conclusion.

Correlative conjunction patterns

Correlative conjunctions are paired connectors that must work as a set. Each half must be placed correctly, and the second half must match the grammatical form of the first. The main pairs are 'either ... or', 'neither ... nor', 'not only ... but also', 'whether ... or', 'both ... and', and 'on the one hand ... on the other (hand)'.

In sentence-ordering questions, the pairs act as anchors. The fragment that opens the first half of a pair must come first, and the fragment that completes it must come later. A contrast pattern of the type 'not X, but Y' works the same way, as in the sentence 'We judge a leader by results, not by promises.'

A practical method for jumbled sentences is to locate the fixed starting point and then attach the remaining pieces by their grammatical role.

• Introductory adverbial clause — a clause such as 'whenever ...' opens the sentence and is followed by a comma and the main clause.
• Relative clause — a 'that' or 'which' clause must follow the noun or whole idea it modifies, so a relative fragment cannot begin a sentence.
• Manner phrase and participle — a main clause may be followed by a 'with' phrase and then a participial phrase that describes the action. e.g. She answered calmly, reassuring the crowd.
• Fronted adverbial — a phrase such as 'in the field of sport, perhaps' can open a sentence, and the main subject then follows it.
• Head noun — in a subject with a prepositional phrase, the head noun controls the sentence, and the phrase after it does not change the structure. e.g. The reasons for the delay are obvious.
• Participle modifying a noun — a phrase such as 'brought by bad times' follows the noun it modifies, so it must be placed directly after that noun. e.g. The damage caused by the flood was severe.

Subject-verb agreement

The verb must agree with its subject in number, and the subject is the head noun, not any noun in a phrase that comes after it. A prepositional phrase such as 'of ...' or 'for ...' does not change the number of the verb. e.g. The results of the test are clear, not the results is clear.

The following rules apply in most agreement questions.

• Head noun with a prepositional phrase — the verb agrees with the head noun. A plural head noun takes a plural verb even when a singular noun appears in the phrase, as in 'Nursery classes for the children start in April.'
• 'Or' and 'nor' — when two subjects are joined by 'or' or 'nor', the verb agrees with the nearer subject. e.g. Neither the manager nor the staff were available.
• Collective noun as one unit — a singular collective noun such as 'company' takes a singular verb when the group acts as one body, even if it is followed by a plural phrase. e.g. A company of soldiers has arrived.
• Plural-form names of events — in this examination's convention, a plural-form noun that names a single event, such as 'The Olympic Games', takes a plural verb.
• Plural subject with a passive verb — the passive verb must agree with the plural subject, using 'are' for present plural and 'is' for singular. e.g. Several proposals are reviewed each year.
• Plural subject with a plural verb in a fixed frame — 'layers of sediments build up' shows that the plural head noun 'layers' requires 'build', not 'builds'.
• Other standard rules — 'each', 'every', 'either' and 'neither' take a singular verb. 'The number of' takes a singular verb, while 'a number of' takes a plural verb.

Cohesive sentence construction

A cohesive sentence has its parts joined by grammatical links that make the meaning flow. In jumbled-sentence questions, these links decide the order. The strategy is to find the subject and main verb, then attach phrases that complete them, and finally check that each dependent element has a clear referent.

Several structures frequently appear.

• Subject clause with a relative clause — a sentence may begin with a 'that' clause as its subject, and a relative clause may then describe the whole predicate. The word 'ineluctable' means inevitable and unavoidable. e.g. That honesty builds trust is an ineluctable truth that guides good leaders.
• 'The outcome of ... is ...' with coordinated complements — a noun phrase may be followed by two joined complements, such as 'peace of mind and contentment'. e.g. The reward of hard work is satisfaction and pride in one's craft.
• 'Product of a process' — the structure 'the product of ...' is often followed by a clause with the present perfect continuous 'has been in the making'. e.g. The city is the product of a process that has been developing for centuries.
• Instruction pattern — 'be instructed to' is followed by an infinitive, and a purpose phrase such as 'for a discussion on' follows the infinitive.
• 'When' clauses with a cause — a 'when' clause may state the condition under which an action is done, and the main clause then gives its effect. The verb 'stunt' means to hinder growth, and 'crush' means to destroy the spirit. e.g. When rules are enforced without fairness, trust is weakened.
• Impersonal 'it is believed that' — the impersonal subject 'it' introduces a clause that states an opinion held by many people. 'In as much as' means to the extent that, and it is followed by a comparison such as 'more ... than'. e.g. It is believed that the old method differs from the new one in as much as it is slower.

Pronouns and reference words such as 'former' and 'latter' must refer back clearly to the nouns they replace, so the order that places the referent before the reference is always the correct one.

Conditional sentence patterns

A conditional sentence joins an if-clause and a main clause. The tense of the if-clause determines the type, and the main clause must match it.

• Zero conditional — if + present simple, present simple. It states general truths.
• First conditional — if + present simple, will + base verb. It states a real future possibility. The if-clause uses the present simple, not 'will'. e.g. If the rain stops, we will play outside.
• Second conditional — if + past simple (or 'were' for all persons), would + base verb. It describes an unreal or hypothetical present or future situation. e.g. If I were the head of the school, I would extend the library hours.
• Hypothetical 'were to' — 'if + were to + base verb' describes a hypothetical future, and the main clause uses 'would'. e.g. If she were to resign, the team would need a new leader.
• Third conditional — if + past perfect (had + past participle), would have + past participle. It describes an unreal past situation. e.g. If he had studied harder, he would have passed.
• Modal perfect — 'would have' or 'wouldn't have' must be followed by the past participle, so 'has' is wrong and 'had' is correct after 'have'. e.g. She would not have had a fall if she had been careful.

A single error in a conditional sentence is usually in one of these two places: the tense of the if-clause, or the form of the main clause that does not match the type.

Present perfect tense usage

The present perfect is formed with has or have plus the past participle, and it connects a past action or experience with the present moment. Use it for experiences up to now, for past actions whose results still matter, and for actions that began earlier and continue to the present. Because it links the past to now, it cannot take a definite finished past time expression such as 'yesterday' or 'last year'. For an ongoing action, the present perfect continuous (has or have been plus the -ing form) stresses the duration up to the present. A plural head noun takes the plural auxiliary have, and an adverb such as seldom is placed between the auxiliary and the past participle. A noun such as opportunity is commonly followed by a to-infinitive that says what the opportunity allows. The causative pattern make + object + bare infinitive can follow the present perfect to show a result that has developed over time.

• has been + -ing — an action that started earlier and is still going on. 예) She has been studying since the morning.
• have + past participle — an experience or result up to now. 예) We have visited that museum twice.

Parts of speech identification

Parts of speech are identified by the function a word performs in the sentence, not by its meaning alone. A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea, and it often follows a possessive determiner and an adjective, as in 'our quiet village', where the head noun is the word that is truly a noun. An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun, while an adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; many adverbs of manner end in -ly and tell how an action is done. A preposition shows the relation between its noun or pronoun object and the rest of the sentence, so a word that takes a noun phrase as its object and shows position or limit is a preposition. Determiners such as this, that, some, and each stand before a noun and specify which one is meant. Many grammar books place demonstratives in this class, although some traditions call them demonstrative adjectives. A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses. Always check the job the word does, because one form can belong to different parts of speech.

• beyond — preposition when it governs a noun phrase. 예) The garden lies beyond the hill.
• fast — adjective before a noun, adverb after a verb. 예) He is a fast runner; he runs fast.

Relative pronouns (who, which, that)

A relative pronoun introduces a relative clause and refers back to its antecedent. Who refers to people and can be the subject of its clause, while whom is the object form for people. Which refers to things and animals. That can refer to people or things in a defining clause, but it cannot follow a preposition or a comma. Whose shows possession and must be followed by a noun, never directly by a verb. An object relative clause with an active verb can be converted into a passive construction: 'The boy whom the teacher praised' becomes 'The boy who was praised by the teacher', keeping the meaning unchanged.