Parts of Speech and Word Formation

Parts of speech classification

Parts of speech are the classes into which words are sorted according to the job they do in a sentence. The same word can belong to different classes in different sentences, so the function in context, not the spelling alone, decides the class. Exam items usually ask for the class of an underlined word, so begin by asking what that word does: it names something, describes something, shows action, relates one word to another, joins elements, replaces a noun, or expresses emotion.

A noun names a person, place, thing, event or idea, and it can work as a subject, object or complement. Common nouns name general kinds, proper nouns name particular ones, and abstract nouns name qualities or states. Uncountable nouns for qualities and substances have no plural and take no indefinite article, so honesty and patience are uncountable, whereas book is countable. Plural nouns such as opportunities can be the subject of a verb that agrees with them. Words for events or anniversaries are nouns that name an occasion and can be the object of a verb. After an article, a word for a period of time such as while functions as a noun, and it remains a noun when it is the object of a preposition such as for. A noun phrase introduced by the and used as subject names a key point or outcome, and compound-looking forms such as bottomline are treated as nouns in this sense. A noun can also rename the subject after a linking verb, as in Water is a liquid.

A pronoun stands in place of a noun or noun phrase already known from context, so that the sentence avoids repetition. The word one can replace a countable noun phrase that has been mentioned, as in Have you a spare umbrella? Yes, I have one. Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves and refer back to the subject, as in She taught herself. The archaic form thyself follows the same pattern for the second person singular. A relative word introduces a relative clause and links it to the noun it describes, which is its antecedent. Who refers to people and which refers to things. The option labelled relative noun in these items names this same relative word class. This and that placed before a noun point to a specific thing and are grouped under demonstratives, whereas the articles are only a, an and the.

An adjective qualifies a noun or pronoun, either before it or after a linking verb. Superlative forms such as most beautiful, and compound forms such as far-off and solo, describe the noun they stand next to. After a linking verb, a quality word can complete the description of the subject, as in conclusions that are questionable. A quality word can also describe a noun that stands for something already named, as beautiful describes ones in the more beautiful ones. Quantity words placed before a noun, such as less attention, express an amount and are classed as adjectives in these items. Participle-form words such as anguished can work as adjectives when they sit before a noun.

A verb expresses an action or state. A transitive verb takes a direct object to which the action passes, as in She won the race, where race is the object. An intransitive verb takes no object. Wander takes no object, so a word such as around that follows it and describes the manner of movement modifies the verb rather than naming anything.

An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a whole clause, answering how, when, where or to what degree, and it takes no object. Adverbs that strengthen an adjective or adverb are called intensifiers, which form a subclass of adverbs. Examples are extremely before new, and too before old. A word placed before an adjective to strengthen it is put in the adverb group in these items. Besides, meaning in addition, stands alone without an object and modifies the whole sentence. Otherwise, meaning if not, modifies the clause that follows and is a conjunctive adverb. Where introducing a clause of condition is a relative adverb, which is still an adverb. The word since can be a preposition before a noun phrase or an adverb when no noun phrase follows, so check whether an object is present.

A preposition is followed by a noun or pronoun, its object, and shows the relation of that object to another word, typically position, time or direction. Above and between each take a noun phrase as object and show position in relation to it.

A conjunction joins words, phrases or clauses. A coordinating conjunction such as and, but or or joins elements of equal grammatical rank, including two independent clauses. A subordinating conjunction such as after, because or although introduces a dependent clause and links it to the main clause.

An interjection expresses a sudden emotion such as surprise, sorrow or doubt. It is set apart from the sentence by punctuation and has no grammatical connection with the rest of it. Alas and Why followed by a comma, used to express surprise or doubt, are interjections.

In practice, identify the function of the underlined word first, then eliminate options that do not match that function, and finally check borderline words such as since, around or articles, whose class depends on whether a noun phrase follows them.

Parts of speech classification

Parts of speech are the classes into which words are sorted according to the job they do in a sentence: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. The same word can belong to different classes in different sentences, so the test is always its function in context, not its spelling alone. Words placed before a noun to limit or specify it (articles, quantifiers and similar words) are called determiners, and modern school grammar treats them as a separate class.

The main tests are as follows.

• Noun — names a person, place, thing or idea. Abstract nouns name a state, quality or feeling, and a noun may serve as subject, object or complement. Example: Honesty is a virtue.
• Noun (time or source) — a noun can name a period of time or a source, and can be the subject of a clause. Example: Lunchtime is short today.
• Noun (plural form) — a plural noun can name a class of things, such as newspapers. Example: The magazines were sold out.
• Pronoun — replaces a noun that is already known. Personal pronouns such as they replace plural nouns. Example: The boys left; they were tired.
• Indefinite pronoun — refers to an unspecified member of a group, as none or someone does. Example: None of the seats are free.
• Pronoun 'one' — replaces a countable noun that has already been identified, often in contrast with another. Example: I want the red one, not the blue one.
• Determiner — stands before a noun and gives its quantity or reference. No and some are quantifiers. Example: She has some money but no time.
• Adjective — describes a noun or pronoun. Example: The room was dark and cold.
• Interrogative adjective — a question word placed before a noun is classed as an adjective, as in which way or which road. Example: Which book is yours?
• Adjective after a linking verb — verbs such as prove, seem and become take an adjective complement that describes the subject. Example: The plan proved useful.
• Adjective (ability to be used with nouns) — an adjective is used to modify a noun where a verb form would not be correct. Example: The unequal share caused anger.
• Adverb of manner — modifies a verb and says how the action is done. Example: He spoke softly.
• Adverb of time or direction — tells when or where an action takes place. Example: They will leave now.
• Comparative adverb — the comparative of well is better when it modifies a verb. Example: She swims better than her brother.
• Conjunctive adverb — shows a consequence or link between clauses but does not join them as a coordinating conjunction would. Therefore, however and moreover belong here. Example: It rained; therefore, we stayed home.
• Verb — expresses an action or a state and is the main predicate of a clause. Example: The children run to school.
• Auxiliary verb — helps another verb express tense or aspect, as have does in the perfect. Example: Having eaten, he rested.
• Preposition — links a noun or pronoun to another word and shows place, time or relation. Example: The book is on the table.
• Compound preposition — a group of words that works as one preposition, such as owing to, showing cause. Example: Owing to rain, the match was cancelled.
• Conjunction — joins words, phrases or clauses of equal rank, such as and, but or or. Words such as therefore do not belong to this class.
• Interjection — expresses sudden feeling and stands apart from the grammar of the sentence, usually followed by an exclamation mark. Examples: Alas, Oh no, Hurray.

Word formation and classification go together. One root often gives several parts of speech through suffixes. Nouns often end in -tion, -ment, -ance or -ence. Adjectives often end in -ous, -ive or -ant. Adverbs are often formed by adding -ly to an adjective. Check each list item against these patterns.

• Qualify family — qualification (noun), qualify (verb), qualifying (adjective), and conditionally (adverb, from conditional).
• Err family — error (noun), err (verb), erroneous (adjective), and erroneously (adverb).
• Care family — care (noun), think (verb), careful (adjective), and carefully (adverb).
• Dual family — duplication (noun), duplicate (verb), duple (adjective), and dually (adverb).
• Exit family — exodus (noun), exit (verb), emanant (adjective meaning issuing from a source), and outward (adverb of direction).
• Spectate family — spectator (noun), spectate (verb), spectatorial (adjective), and extremely (adverb, from extreme).