Indian History, Art & Culture

Classical Indian literature

Classical Indian literature spans Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and other languages, and each tradition has its own genres: grammar treatises, epics, mahakavyas, champus, prabandhas and drama. Exam questions usually test the pairing of a work with its author, its language, or its genre, so these pairings should be memorised as units. Attribution is the main trap, because a famous name is often linked to a work he did not write.

• Tolkappiyam — the oldest surviving Tamil grammar, covering letters, words and meaning, traditionally linked with the Sangam corpus. Panini, the author of the Sanskrit grammar Ashtadhyayi, did not write it. e.g. A student who confuses Tamil and Sanskrit grammars will select the wrong author.
• Harshavardhana's works — three Sanskrit plays, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda, are credited to him. Harshacharita, the biography of Harsha, and Kadambari were written by Banabhatta, and Gitagovinda is a lyric by Jayadeva. e.g. Ratnavali is a drama, not a prose romance.
• Kiratarjuniyam — a Sanskrit mahakavya by Bharavi, a sixth-century poet, on Arjuna's austerities to obtain a weapon from Shiva. Thirukkural is by Thiruvalluvar, the Ramayana by Valmiki, and the Ashtadhyayi by Panini.
• Amuktamalyada — a Telugu prabandha on statecraft composed by the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya, so the language is Telugu, not Kannada, Tamil or Sanskrit.
• Champu and prabandha forms — Rigarthadipika is a Sanskrit commentary on the Rigveda by Madhava Yogi. Yashastilaka Champu, a mixed prose and verse work, is by Somadeva. Nalachampu, also called Damayanti-Katha, is by Trivikrama Bhatta.

Ashokan edicts and scripts

The edicts of Ashoka, the Mauryan emperor of the third century BCE, were engraved in several scripts and languages according to region. Brahmi was used for most inscriptions across the subcontinent, Kharoshthi in the north-west, and Greek and Aramaic in the Afghan territories. Knowing which script goes with which region is the core of this topic. Ancient writing systems also appear as a separate comparison point.

• Brahmi — the main script of Ashokan edicts. Regional forms show differences in letter shapes, which is why the script is described as having local variations.
• Kharoshthi — written from right to left and used mainly in the north-west, including present-day Pakistan, Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, not in southern India.
• Bilingual Afghan edicts — the Kandahar edict is written in Greek and Aramaic, and the Laghman edict is in Aramaic, so these are not in Brahmi.
• Hieroglyphic and cuneiform — hieroglyphs developed in ancient Egypt and cuneiform in Mesopotamia. A statement that swaps these two regions is incorrect.
• Political centres in the edicts — Suvarnagiri is named as a centre of Mauryan administration, along with Tosali, Ujjain and Isila. Kaushambi appears in the Queen's Edict, and Kandahar is only a find-spot, not a named centre. Indraprastha is not mentioned.

Ancient Indian coinage

Coinage from about 200 BCE to 300 CE reflects the political and economic contacts of the period, with foreign rulers introducing new designs and standards. Coin legends are key evidence, because they show script, language and ruler names. Students should learn which dynasty introduced which feature.

• Indo-Greek coins — these were the first in India to carry the names and portraits of rulers, and they used bilingual and bi-script legends such as Greek with Kharoshthi or Brahmi.
• Kushana coinage — the Kushanas are credited with the first gold coinage in India and also issued low-denomination copper coins. Their gold dinar was close in weight to the Roman aureus, and hoards have been found in north India and Central Asia.
• Satavahana coinage — the Satavahanas struck coins in silver, copper, lead and potin, a tin-lead alloy.
• Negama coins — these are associated with guild or urban corporate issues. Absence of a coin type in the record is weak evidence for concluding that a group's power declined.

Education commissions in India

Education commissions in India were set up at different periods, and each has a defined focus. Some examined the education system as a whole, while others concentrated on universities, public services or specific fields. Candidates should memorise the year of appointment and the subject area of each commission.

• Kothari Commission — the Education Commission appointed by the Government of India in 1964 under D. S. Kothari, which submitted its report in 1966. Its year of appointment and year of report are different, and the question often tests this difference.
• Public Services Commissions — the Aitchison Commission (1886–87) and the Islington Commission (1912–15) examined the public services in India.
• Lee Commission — appointed in 1923 to review the superior civil services, a matter of public services and not of education.
• Radhakrishnan Commission — the University Education Commission of 1948–49, which dealt with higher education in universities, so it is not a public services commission.

Ancient Indian scientific treatises

Ancient Indian treatises covered medicine, astronomy, mathematics, veterinary science, and the arts. Each treatise is usually linked to a traditional author or school, and each field has its own technical vocabulary. In exams, the field of a technical term is often the question, so students must link each term to its discipline.

• Ashvashastra — a treatise on the care and medical treatment of horses, traditionally attributed to the sage Shalihotra. Vagbhatta is associated with human medicine, Bhartrihari with grammar and poetry, and Varahamihira with astronomy.
• Katapayadi system — a method of representing numbers by letters, used in Kerala astronomical texts.
• Parahita and Drigganita systems — computational methods for planetary positions and eclipses.
• Field association — astronomy is the field of the Katapayadi, Parahita and Drigganita systems, whereas surgery is linked with Sushruta, chemistry with rasashastra, and music and dance with the Natyashastra.

Neolithic culture and pottery

The Neolithic, or New Stone Age, is marked by ground and polished stone tools, the beginnings of agriculture, animal domestication and pottery. In the subcontinent these features did not appear everywhere at the same time. Each region had its own chronology, and Mehrgarh in Baluchistan is the key early site for agriculture.

• Characteristic features — ground and polished stone tools, agriculture, animal domestication and pottery.
• Mehrgarh — the earliest evidence of agriculture in the subcontinent, dating to around the seventh millennium BCE.
• Regional sequence — Neolithic features emerged at different times in different regions, so the claim that they appeared almost simultaneously across the subcontinent is incorrect.
• Pottery types — OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery), NBP (Northern Black Polished Ware) and BRW (Black-and-Red Ware) are recognised types in Indian archaeology, whereas CCE is not a standard pottery name.

Harappan sites and archaeological finds

Harappan sites are known for their town planning, water systems, crafts and agriculture. Each site is famous for one or two particular discoveries, and exam questions usually ask for the site behind a specific find. Students should link each site with its best-known feature.

• Kalibangan — on the Ghaggar in Rajasthan, it has early Harappan levels with a ploughed field showing two sets of furrows at right angles. This indicates two crops sown together, a practice known as mixed cropping.
• Banawali — in Haryana, a Mature Harappan settlement that has yielded a house with a toilet fitted with a wash basin.
• Other sites — Dholavira is known for its reservoirs and water-management system, Lothal for its dockyard, and Rakhigarhi for its large settlement and burials.

Foreign travellers' accounts of India

Foreign travellers and writers from the classical period to the early modern period left accounts of India's trade, agriculture, cities and society. Their writings are important sources, and each writer is associated with a region or period. Questions often ask who first recorded a particular practice or who commented on a particular economic phenomenon.

• Seed drill — a device for sowing seed in rows at a set depth. Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese writer on the western coast in the early sixteenth century, described it on the Karnataka coast, which is the earliest known reference to it in India.
• Indo-Roman trade — Pliny the Elder complained that Roman gold drained into India in exchange for luxury goods such as pepper, silk and gems. Dio Chrysostom also referred to this flow, whereas Strabo and Ptolemy described the trade routes and ports.
• Other travellers — Abdur Razzaq was a Persian envoy who described Vijayanagara, and Niccolo Conti and Afanasy Nikitin were fifteenth-century travellers whose accounts do not contain the seed drill reference.

Medieval Indian dynasties

Medieval Indian dynasties ruled across regions such as Orissa, Gujarat, Kashmir, Bengal and central India. Each dynasty is identified by its own family name, and rulers from different dynasties share the same name. Questions often test whether a ruler is matched with the correct dynasty or with the correct monument.

• Eastern Gangas of Orissa — Anantavarman Chodaganga consolidated the kingdom and built the Jagannath temple at Puri. The Konark Sun temple was built by Narasimhadeva I, who repelled an invasion from Bengal.
• Kalachuris of Tripuri — Lakshmikarna belonged to this dynasty, not to the Palas.
• Solankis (Chalukyas) of Gujarat — Bhima I was a ruler of this Gujarat dynasty.
• Shahis and Karkotas — Jayapala belonged to the Shahi dynasty, whereas Lalitaditya Muktapida belonged to the Karkota dynasty of Kashmir, not the Utpala dynasty.

Vernacular Press Act 1878

The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was a colonial measure that restricted the publication of critical writing in Indian languages. It was passed under Viceroy Lytton and was strongly opposed by Indian newspapers. The Act was later repealed under Viceroy Ripon in 1882. Two points are usually tested: the Act's author and the response of the Indian press.

• Opposition within government — Lytton passed the Act despite the opposition of his own Law Member, Whitley Stokes.
• Response of Indian press — Indian-language newspapers protested strongly against the Act, so the claim that the press did not protest is false.

Anglo-Afghan Wars

The Anglo-Afghan Wars were a series of conflicts between British India and Afghanistan in the nineteenth century, over control of the north-west frontier. The Second Anglo-Afghan War began in 1878 under Viceroy Lytton. Chronological matching of events with years is a common question type, so candidates must memorise the key dates of colonial India.

• Second Anglo-Afghan War — it began in 1878, during Lytton's viceroyalty.
• Other dated events — the Ilbert Bill controversy occurred in 1883, Fox's India Bill was introduced in 1783, and Lord Curzon became Viceroy in 1899.

Dhrupad music tradition

Dhrupad is the oldest surviving form of North Indian classical vocal music, characterised by a slow, serious style and a structure of alap, jod and jhala before the composition. It developed in the courts of North India, and its patronage is closely linked with the rulers of Gwalior.

• Origin and patronage — Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior is credited with introducing and popularising Dhrupad at his court.
• Other musicians — Tansen performed Dhrupad at Akbar's court, but he did not introduce the form, and Naik Gopal was associated with Man Singh's court.

Partition narratives

Partition narratives are literary and oral accounts of the division of India and Pakistan in 1947. They include short stories, novels, poems and oral histories. Each text uses a different genre, and oral history collections are distinct from fiction. Authors should be matched with their genre and their known works.

• Oral history — Urvashi Butalia's The Other Side of Silence is a non-fiction account built on oral testimonies from people affected by the Partition.
• Partition fiction — Saadat Hasan Manto is known for Partition short stories such as Toba Tek Singh, and Amrita Pritam wrote the poem Ajj Aakhan Waris Shah Nu. Manju Kapur is a novelist who did not write this oral history.

Census in colonial India

The census was an important tool of British colonial administration, used to gather information on population, caste, religion and occupation. The first attempt at an all-India census was not uniform across regions, and the first synchronous, complete enumeration came later. Candidates should separate the first attempt from the first complete census.

• First attempt — the first all-India census attempt was made in 1872 under Lord Mayo, though it was not uniform across all regions.
• Synchronous census — the first complete, synchronous enumeration was conducted in 1881, and this should not be confused with the 1872 attempt.

Bengal School of painting

The Bengal School of painting emerged around the turn of the twentieth century and sought a distinctly Indian style, drawing on Mughal, Ajanta and Japanese influences. It was closely associated with the Swadeshi movement and with Abanindranath Tagore. Exam questions often ask which work was praised by a contemporary critic and what the work signifies.

• Bharatmata — Abanindranath Tagore's painting, which Sister Nivedita praised as the first masterpiece of modern Indian art. It expresses nationalist ideals through the image of Bharat Mata.
• Distinction from Ravi Varma — Raja Ravi Varma's Arjuna and Subhadra is a work of the academic oil-painting tradition, not the Bengal School.

Deccan kingdoms and battles

The Deccan kingdoms, including Vijayanagara and the Deccan sultanates, were frequently engaged in battles that shaped the political history of southern India. Battles are often known by a second name, and exam questions test whether candidates know the popular name of a battle. Dates and combatants help distinguish battles that look similar.

• Rakshasi-Tangadi — the battle of 1565 between the Vijayanagara Empire and a coalition of the Deccan sultanates, popularly known as the Battle of Talikota after the town near the battlefield. The Vijayanagara defeat led to the sack of its capital, Hampi.
• Other battles — the Battle of Khanwa was fought in 1527 between Babur and Rana Sanga, and the Battle of Dharmat was fought in 1658 between Aurangzeb and Dara Shikoh.

Indian miniature painting schools

Indian miniature painting developed in several regional schools, including Rajasthani, Pahari, Mughal, Deccani and Malwa, and each school absorbed influences from Persian and Central Asian painting. The Mughal school under Humayun drew on the Herat tradition, associated with the painter Bihzad. Students should know which regional school was influenced by which foreign tradition.